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bitter criticism

  • 1 критика

    сущ.
    criticism — критика, критическое отношение, критическое замечание: adverse criticism — жесткая критика; slashing (violent, bitter) criticism — уничтожающая (яростная, резкая) критика; beneath criticism — ниже всякой критики; outspoken criticism — открытая критика; severe/strong criticism — сильная критика; widespread criticism — распространенная критика; to subject to criticism — подвергнуть критике Не thinks criticism of his team's performance is hard to take. — Он считает, что с критикой в адрес игры его команды нелегко примириться. It is not unusual for politicians to be attacked with criticism. — Нет ничего необычного в том, что политические деятели подвергаются критике/Политические деятели нередко подвергаются критике. Plans for the new road have drawn fierce criticism from the local business. — Планы строительства новой дороги вызвали отчаянную критику со стороны местных деловых кругов. We always welcome constructive criticism. — Мы всегда приветствуем конструктивную критику/Мы всегда приветствуем конструктивные критические замечания. The report contains many valid criticism of the current system. — В докладе содержится много важных критических замечаний относительно существующей системы.
    Существительное criticism и глагол to criticize сравнимы по своим значениям с нанесением кому-либо удара, причинением неприятности, болезненного ощущения, что в явном виде выражено в таких словосочетаниях как: She hit out angrily at the judge's decision. — Она резко ответила на решение судьи. Не lashed out at me accusing me of not caring. — Он набросился на меня, обвинив в равнодушии. They tore me to pieces/shreds. — Они раскритиковали меня в пух и прах. Don't beat yourself over this. — He кори себя за это. There is no need to jump down my throat. — He стоит так яростно на меня набрасываться.

    Русско-английский объяснительный словарь > критика

  • 2 резкая критика

    2) Colloquial: slasher
    4) Cinema: diatribe
    5) Jargon: kicker, pan, zapper, lumps, pam, potshot
    6) Literature: strong attack
    8) Mass media: slaming

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > резкая критика

  • 3 verter

    v.
    1 to spill.
    2 to pour (out) (vaciar) (líquido).
    los ríos vierten sus aguas en el mar rivers flow into the sea
    Ella vierte el vino She pours the wine.
    3 to translate.
    Ellos vertieron el código They translated the code.
    4 to make (expresar) (acusación, crítica).
    verter insultos sobre alguien to shower somebody with insults
    5 to express, to voice.
    Ella vierte sus sentimientos She expresses her feelings.
    * * *
    Conjugation model [ ENTENDER], like link=entender entender
    1 (líquido - voluntariamente) to pour, pour out
    2 (derramar) to spill; (lágrimas, sangre) to shed
    3 (vaciar) to empty, empty out
    4 (basura) to dump
    5 (traducir) to translate
    6 figurado (conceptos, ideas, etc) to express, voice
    1 (corriente, río) to run (a, into), flow (a, into)
    * * *
    verb
    3) pour
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) [+ contenido] to pour (out), empty (out); (sin querer) to spill, pour; [+ lágrimas, luz, sangre] to shed; [+ basura, residuos] to dump, tip
    2) [+ recipiente] (=vaciar) to empty (out); (=invertir) to tip up; (sin querer) to upset
    3) (Ling) to translate (a into)
    2.
    VI [río] to flow, run (a into); [declive] to fall (a towards)
    * * *
    1.
    or verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) ( echar) <agua/vino/trigo> to pour
    b) ( derramar) < líquido> to spill; <lágrimas/sangre> (liter) to shed (liter)
    2) (period) ( expresar) < opiniones> to voice, state
    3) (frml)
    a) ( traducir)

    verter algo a algo — to translate o (frml) render something into something

    b) ( trasladar)
    2.
    verter vi to flow
    * * *
    = pour (in/into), shed, decant.
    Ex. The water of the stuff poured into the middle of the cylinder through its wire-mesh cover, and was immediately pumped out from one end leaving a film of fibres on the surface.
    Ex. While some retractable awnings can be used during a light rain if they are pitched sufficiently to shed the water, most are not designed for use in inclement weather.
    Ex. Last year's sloe gin has been steeping for ten months now - it's time to decant.
    ----
    * verter por el desagüe = pour down + the drain.
    * verter por el sumidero = pour down + the drain.
    * * *
    1.
    or verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) ( echar) <agua/vino/trigo> to pour
    b) ( derramar) < líquido> to spill; <lágrimas/sangre> (liter) to shed (liter)
    2) (period) ( expresar) < opiniones> to voice, state
    3) (frml)
    a) ( traducir)

    verter algo a algo — to translate o (frml) render something into something

    b) ( trasladar)
    2.
    verter vi to flow
    * * *
    = pour (in/into), shed, decant.

    Ex: The water of the stuff poured into the middle of the cylinder through its wire-mesh cover, and was immediately pumped out from one end leaving a film of fibres on the surface.

    Ex: While some retractable awnings can be used during a light rain if they are pitched sufficiently to shed the water, most are not designed for use in inclement weather.
    Ex: Last year's sloe gin has been steeping for ten months now - it's time to decant.
    * verter por el desagüe = pour down + the drain.
    * verter por el sumidero = pour down + the drain.

    * * *
    verter [ E31 ] or [E8 ]
    vt
    A
    1 (echar) ‹agua/vino/trigo› to pour
    vertió el contenido de la botella en el vaso he emptied o poured the contents of the bottle into the glass
    verter residuos radiactivos al or en el mar to dump radioactive waste in the sea
    2 (derramar) ‹líquido› to spill ‹lágrimas› ( liter) to shed ( liter)
    vertieron su sangre por la patria ( liter); their blood was spilt o shed for their country
    B ( period) (expresar) ‹opiniones› to voice, state
    las acusaciones que ha vertido la prensa sobre él the accusations that the press has made against him
    vertió ácidas críticas sobre su conducta he leveled bitter criticism against her for her behavior
    C ( frml)
    1 (traducir) verter algo A algo to translate sth INTO sth, render sth INTO sth ( frml)
    vertió el poema al francés he translated o rendered the poem into French
    2
    (trasladar): vertió sus sentimientos al papel he put his feelings down on paper
    ■ verter
    vi
    to flow
    el Ebro vierte al Mediterráneo the Ebro flows into the Mediterranean
    * * *

     

    verter ( conjugate verter) or ( conjugate verter) verbo transitivo
    a) ( en un recipiente) ‹agua/vino/trigo› to pour

    b) ( derramar) ‹ líquido› to spill;

    ‹lágrimas/sangre› (liter) to shed (liter)

    verter
    I verbo transitivo
    1 (pasar de un recipiente a otro) to pour
    2 (basura, escombros) tip, dump
    3 (dejar caer, derramar) to spill
    II frml (traducir) to translate
    ' verter' also found in these entries:
    English:
    dump
    - pour
    - pour out
    - render
    - shed
    - tip
    - tip out
    - discharge
    - spill
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [derramar] [sal] to spill;
    [lágrimas] to shed;
    mucha sangre se ha vertido ya much blood has already been shed o spilt
    2. [echar] [líquido] to pour (out);
    [basura, residuos] to dump;
    vertió la harina en el saco she poured the flour into the sack;
    los ríos vierten sus aguas en el mar rivers flow into the sea
    3. [vaciar] [recipiente] to empty
    4. [traducir] to translate (a into)
    5. [expresar] [opinión] to express;
    las acusaciones/críticas vertidas por el periódico the accusations/criticisms made by the newspaper
    ♦ vi
    verter a o [m5]en to flow into
    * * *
    I v/t dump; ( derramar) spill; fig: opinión voice;
    el Ebro vierte sus aguas en el Mediterráneo the Ebro flows into the Mediterranean
    II v/i de un río flow (a into)
    * * *
    verter {56} vt
    1) : to pour
    2) : to spill, to shed
    3) : to empty out
    4) : to express, to voice
    5) : to translate, to render
    verter vi
    : to flow
    * * *
    verter vb
    1. (derramar) to spill [pt. & pp. spilt]
    2. (volcar) to pour
    3. (basura, residuos) to dump

    Spanish-English dictionary > verter

  • 4 herb

    Adj.
    1. geschmacklich: sour, tart; Wein: dry
    2. Duft: tangy
    3. fig. Gesichtszüge, Kritik, Worte: harsh, severe; Enttäuschung, Niederlage etc.: bitter; Schönheit, Stil: austere
    * * *
    sour; sharp; austere; tart; acid
    * * *
    hẹrb [hɛrp]
    1. adj
    1) Geruch sharp; Geschmack sharp, tangy; Parfüm tangy; Wein dry
    2) Enttäuschung, Verlust, Niederlage bitter; Erwachen rude; Erkenntnis, Wahrheit cruel
    3) (= streng) Züge, Gesicht severe, harsh; Art, Wesen, Charakter, Mensch dour; Schönheit severe, austere
    4) (= unfreundlich) Worte, Kritik harsh
    2. adv

    herb riechen or duften — to smell tangy

    herb schmecken — to taste tangy; Wein to taste dry

    * * *
    [hɛrp]
    I. adj
    1. (bitter-würzig) sharp, astringent; Duft, Parfüm tangy; Wein dry
    2. (schmerzlich) bitter; Erkenntnis sobering
    3. (etwas streng) severe; Schönheit austere
    4. (scharf) harsh
    II. adv
    \herb schmecken to taste sharp, to have an astringent taste
    \herb duften/riechen to smell tangy
    der Wein schmeckt etwas \herb this wine tastes somewhat dry
    * * *
    1) [slightly] sharp or astringent < taste>; dry < wine>; [slightly] sharp or tangy <smell, perfume>
    2) bitter <disappointment, loss>; severe <face, features>; austere < beauty>
    3) (unfreundlich) harsh <words, criticism>
    * * *
    herb adj
    1. geschmacklich: sour, tart; Wein: dry
    2. Duft: tangy
    3. fig Gesichtszüge, Kritik, Worte: harsh, severe; Enttäuschung, Niederlage etc: bitter; Schönheit, Stil: austere
    * * *
    1) [slightly] sharp or astringent < taste>; dry < wine>; [slightly] sharp or tangy <smell, perfume>
    2) bitter <disappointment, loss>; severe <face, features>; austere < beauty>
    3) (unfreundlich) harsh <words, criticism>
    * * *
    adj.
    bitter adj.
    harsh adj.
    tart adj. adv.
    harshly adv.
    tartly adv.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > herb

  • 5 heftig

    I Adj.
    1. Kampf, Streit, Sturm, Zorn: violent, vehement; (wild, erbittert) fierce; (leidenschaftlich) passionate; (wütend) furious; (stark) intense, intensive; Abneigung: strong; Sehnsucht: intense, passionate; Hass, Verlangen: burning; Kälte: numbing, severe; Erkältung: bad, severe; Fieber: raging; Worte: angry; Regen, Schneefälle etc.: heavy; heftiger Aufprall violent impact; heftiges Kopfweh a severe ( oder splitting) headache; „Wie war die Prüfung?“ - „Heftig!“ „How was the exam?“ „It was a brute!“
    2. (reizbar) hot-tempered; heftig werden Person: lose one’s temper; sei doch nicht gleich so heftig calm down, no need to get upset
    II Adv. violently etc.; siehe I; es stürmt heftig there’s a real storm going ( oder outside); der Wind bläst heftig there’s a strong wind blowing; sie reagierte heftig auf die Kritik she reacted violently to the criticism; die Meldung wurde von einem Unternehmenssprecher heftig dementiert the announcement was strongly denied by a company spokesperson
    * * *
    fierce (Adj.); violent (Adj.); vehement (Adj.); boisterous (Adj.); sulphurous (Adj.); hard (Adj.); heavy (Adj.); furious (Adj.); severe (Adj.); sultry (Adj.); hasty (Adj.); sulfurous (Adj.); acute (Adj.); impetuous (Adj.); exquisite (Adj.); barmy (Adj.)
    * * *
    hẹf|tig ['hɛftɪç]
    1. adj
    1) (= stark, gewaltig) violent; Kopfschmerzen severe; Schmerz intense, acute; Erkältung severe; Fieber raging, severe; Zorn, Ärger, Hass violent, burning no adv, intense; Liebe, Sehnsucht ardent, burning no adv, intense; Leidenschaft violent; Abneigung intense; Widerstand vehement; Weinen bitter; Lachen uproarious; Atmen heavy; Kontroverse, Kampf, Wind fierce; Regen lashing no adv, driving no adv, heavy; Frost severe, heavy
    2) (= jähzornig, ungehalten) Mensch violent(-tempered); Ton fierce, vehement; Worte violent

    heftig werden — to fly into a passion

    3) (sl = sehr gut) wicked (sl)
    2. adv
    regnen, schneien, zuschlagen hard; verprügeln severely; aufprallen with great force, hard; schütteln, rühren vigorously; nicken emphatically; zittern badly; dementieren, schimpfen vehemently; verliebt passionately, madly (inf)

    es stürmt/gewittert heftig — there is a violent storm/thunderstorm

    der Regen schlug heftig gegen die Scheiben — the rain pounded or beat against the windows

    er hat heftig dagegen gewettert — he raged vehemently against it

    * * *
    1) ((of an argument, fight etc) vigorous, with first one side then the other seeming to win.) ding-dong
    2) (intense or strong: fierce rivals.) fierce
    5) (violent: a furious argument.) furious
    6) (very great: intense heat; intense hatred.) intense
    8) (having, using, or showing, great force: There was a violent storm at sea; a violent earthquake; He has a violent temper.) violent
    9) ((of pain etc) keen, acute or intense: He gets a sharp pain after eating.) sharp
    10) (brave and resolute: stout resistance; stout opposition.) stout
    11) ((of a person, especially a woman) passionate.) sultry
    * * *
    hef·tig
    [ˈhɛftɪç]
    I. adj
    1. (stark, gewaltig) violent
    ein \heftiger Aufprall/Schlag a violent impact/blow
    \heftige Kopfschmerzen an intense [or a splitting] headache
    \heftige Schneefälle heavy snowfalls
    \heftige Seitenstiche a severe stitch in one's side
    ein \heftiger Sturm a violent storm
    eine \heftige Tracht Prügel (fam) a good thrashing fam
    2. (intensiv) intense
    \heftige Auseinandersetzungen fierce arguments
    nach \heftigen Kämpfen after heavy fighting
    eine \heftige Sehnsucht/Leidenschaft an intense longing/passion
    3. (unbeherrscht) violent; (scharf) vehement
    ich hatte eine \heftigere Reaktion befürchtet I had feared a more vehement reaction
    ▪ \heftig werden to fly into a rage
    II. adv violently
    es schneite \heftig it snowed heavily
    die Vorwürfe wurden \heftig dementiert the accusations were vehemently denied
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv violent; heavy <rain, shower, blow>; intense, burning <hatred, desire>; fierce <controversy, criticism, competition>; severe <pain, cold>; loud < bang>; rapid < breathing>; bitter < weeping>; heated, vehement <tone, words>
    2.
    adverbial <rain, snow, breathe> heavily; < hit> hard; < hurt> a great deal; < answer> angrily, heatedly; < react> angrily, violently
    * * *
    A. adj
    1. Kampf, Streit, Sturm, Zorn: violent, vehement; (wild, erbittert) fierce; (leidenschaftlich) passionate; (wütend) furious; (stark) intense, intensive; Abneigung: strong; Sehnsucht: intense, passionate; Hass, Verlangen: burning; Kälte: numbing, severe; Erkältung: bad, severe; Fieber: raging; Worte: angry; Regen, Schneefälle etc: heavy;
    heftiger Aufprall violent impact;
    heftiges Kopfweh a severe ( oder splitting) headache;
    „Wie war die Prüfung?“ - „Heftig!“ “How was the exam”” “It was a brute!”
    2. (reizbar) hot-tempered;
    heftig werden Person: lose one’s temper;
    sei doch nicht gleich so heftig calm down, no need to get upset
    B. adv violently etc; → A;
    es stürmt heftig there’s a real storm going ( oder outside);
    der Wind bläst heftig there’s a strong wind blowing;
    sie reagierte heftig auf die Kritik she reacted violently to the criticism;
    die Meldung wurde von einem Unternehmenssprecher heftig dementiert the announcement was strongly denied by a company spokesperson
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv violent; heavy <rain, shower, blow>; intense, burning <hatred, desire>; fierce <controversy, criticism, competition>; severe <pain, cold>; loud < bang>; rapid < breathing>; bitter < weeping>; heated, vehement <tone, words>
    2.
    adverbial <rain, snow, breathe> heavily; < hit> hard; < hurt> a great deal; < answer> angrily, heatedly; < react> angrily, violently
    * * *
    adj.
    boisterous adj.
    bold adj.
    fierce adj.
    hard adj.
    heavy adj.
    impetuous adj.
    severe adj.
    violent adj. adv.
    boisterously adv.
    impetuously adv.
    testily adv.
    vehemently adv.
    violently adv.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > heftig

  • 6 penetrante

    adj.
    2 sharp, penetrating (sagaz).
    * * *
    1 penetrating
    * * *
    adj.
    sharp, acute
    * * *
    ADJ
    1) [herida] deep
    2) [arma] sharp; [frío, viento] biting; [sonido] piercing; [vista] acute; [aroma] strong; [mirada] sharp, penetrating
    3) [genio, mente] keen, sharp; [ironía] biting
    * * *
    1)
    a) <mirada/voz> penetrating, piercing; < olor> pungent, penetrating; < sonido> piercing
    b) <viento/frío> bitter, biting
    2) <inteligencia/mente> sharp, incisive; <humor/ironía> sharp, cutting
    * * *
    = penetrating, sharp [sharper -comp., sharpest -sup.], trenchant, lancinating, piercing, pungent, high-pitched, penetrative, tangy [tangier - comp., tangiest -sup.], nippy [nippier -comp., nippiest -sup.].
    Ex. In this connection, Ohmes and Jones of the Florida State University Library have offered some rather penetrating insights regarding what they call 'The Other Half of Cataloging'.
    Ex. 'I'll give it more thought,' she said with a sharp frown, resuming her former posture.
    Ex. However, both BTI and LCSH occasionally use headings of this kind, though one could argue strongly that these are out of place in direct entry methods, and they come in for trenchant criticism from Metcalfe.
    Ex. The personnel officer experienced an involuntary shiver as the lancinating reality of the board's decision sank in.
    Ex. She gave him one long piercing glance and started up the stairs toward the deputy director's office.
    Ex. The studies reported here addressed the question of whether the pungent element in chilies, capsaicin, suppresses taste and flavor intensity.
    Ex. The noise is a high-pitched whine or hiss the machine emits during operation.
    Ex. As the vacuum is further increased, the rays become more penetrative, and show the shadow of the bones in the hand.
    Ex. The most boring meal can be pepped up with spicy and tangy herbs.
    Ex. Blend cream cheese with prepared horseradish for a nippy taste.
    ----
    * de un modo penetrante = piercingly.
    * dolor penetrante = shooting stab of pain, shooting pain.
    * frío penetrante = biting cold, pinching cold.
    * olor fuerte y penetrante = tang.
    * sabor fuerte y penetrante = tang.
    * viento penetrante = biting wind.
    * * *
    1)
    a) <mirada/voz> penetrating, piercing; < olor> pungent, penetrating; < sonido> piercing
    b) <viento/frío> bitter, biting
    2) <inteligencia/mente> sharp, incisive; <humor/ironía> sharp, cutting
    * * *
    = penetrating, sharp [sharper -comp., sharpest -sup.], trenchant, lancinating, piercing, pungent, high-pitched, penetrative, tangy [tangier - comp., tangiest -sup.], nippy [nippier -comp., nippiest -sup.].

    Ex: In this connection, Ohmes and Jones of the Florida State University Library have offered some rather penetrating insights regarding what they call 'The Other Half of Cataloging'.

    Ex: 'I'll give it more thought,' she said with a sharp frown, resuming her former posture.
    Ex: However, both BTI and LCSH occasionally use headings of this kind, though one could argue strongly that these are out of place in direct entry methods, and they come in for trenchant criticism from Metcalfe.
    Ex: The personnel officer experienced an involuntary shiver as the lancinating reality of the board's decision sank in.
    Ex: She gave him one long piercing glance and started up the stairs toward the deputy director's office.
    Ex: The studies reported here addressed the question of whether the pungent element in chilies, capsaicin, suppresses taste and flavor intensity.
    Ex: The noise is a high-pitched whine or hiss the machine emits during operation.
    Ex: As the vacuum is further increased, the rays become more penetrative, and show the shadow of the bones in the hand.
    Ex: The most boring meal can be pepped up with spicy and tangy herbs.
    Ex: Blend cream cheese with prepared horseradish for a nippy taste.
    * de un modo penetrante = piercingly.
    * dolor penetrante = shooting stab of pain, shooting pain.
    * frío penetrante = biting cold, pinching cold.
    * olor fuerte y penetrante = tang.
    * sabor fuerte y penetrante = tang.
    * viento penetrante = biting wind.

    * * *
    A
    1 ‹mirada/voz› penetrating, piercing
    2 ‹olor› pungent, penetrating; ‹sonido› piercing
    3 ‹viento/frío› bitter, biting
    B
    1 ‹inteligencia/mente› sharp, incisive
    2 ‹humor/ironía› sharp, cutting
    * * *

    penetrante adjetivo
    1
    a) ‹mirada/voz› penetrating, piercing;

    ‹ olor› pungent, penetrating;
    ‹ sonido› piercing
    b) ‹viento/frío› bitter, biting

    2 ‹inteligencia/mente/ironía› sharp
    penetrante adjetivo
    1 (mirada, voz) penetrating
    2 (dolor) piercing
    3 (olor) pungent
    4 (herida) deep
    5 (frío) bitter, biting
    6 (mente, observación) incisive, sharp, acute
    ' penetrante' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    refinada
    - refinado
    English:
    incisive
    - keen
    - keenly
    - penetrating
    - pervasive
    - piercing
    - searching
    - intent
    - obtrusive
    - tang
    * * *
    1. [intenso] [dolor] acute;
    [olor] sharp; [frío] biting; [mirada] penetrating; [voz, sonido] piercing
    2. [sagaz] sharp, penetrating
    * * *
    adj
    1 mirada penetrating
    2 sonido piercing
    3 frío bitter
    4 herida deep
    5 análisis incisive
    * * *
    1) : penetrating, piercing
    2) : sharp, acute
    3) : deep (of a wound)

    Spanish-English dictionary > penetrante

  • 7 enconado

    adj.
    1 pigheaded, dogged.
    2 bitter, violent.
    past part.
    past participle of spanish verb: enconar.
    * * *
    1→ link=enconar enconar
    1 MEDICINA inflamed, sore
    2 figurado (apasionado) passionate, eager
    3 figurado (discusión, lucha) bitter, fierce, heated
    * * *
    ADJ
    1) [discusión] bitter
    2) (Med) (=inflamado) inflamed; (=dolorido) sore
    * * *
    - da adjetivo <lucha/disputa> fierce; < discusión> heated, passionate
    * * *
    = acrimonious, vitriolic.
    Ex. In practice meetings of the Council of Ministers -- the Community's main legislative body -- have in recent years become a forum for acrimonious dispute.
    Ex. This magazine had a particular interest in curious stories of libraries and bookmen, and was abundant in criticism both humorous and vitriolic.
    * * *
    - da adjetivo <lucha/disputa> fierce; < discusión> heated, passionate
    * * *
    = acrimonious, vitriolic.

    Ex: In practice meetings of the Council of Ministers -- the Community's main legislative body -- have in recent years become a forum for acrimonious dispute.

    Ex: This magazine had a particular interest in curious stories of libraries and bookmen, and was abundant in criticism both humorous and vitriolic.

    * * *
    ‹lucha› fierce; ‹disputa› fierce, bitter; ‹discusión› heated, passionate
    * * *
    enconado, -a adj
    1. [lucha, pelea, conflicto] bitter;
    [discusión, debate] heated; [partidario] passionate, ardent
    2. [herida] inflamed
    * * *
    adj fierce, heated

    Spanish-English dictionary > enconado

  • 8 жесток

    1. cruel ( към to)
    (груб) brutal
    (зъл) merciless, mean
    (за деяние)s atrocious, monstrous, outrageous
    жестоки нрави cruel customs
    жестока съдба a cruel/hard fate
    жестоко сърце a heart of stone/flint/steel
    2. (силен, яростен) fierce, violent
    жестока борба a fierce struggle
    жестока съпротива fierce resistance
    жесток удар a crushing/savage/fierce blow
    жестоко поражение a punishing/crushing defeat
    жестоко разочарование a bitter/cruel disappointment
    жестока измама a cruel deception
    жестока обида/неправда an outrageous/a monstrous insult/injustice
    жесток студ severe frost
    жестоки страдания agonizing pain, torment, terrible/cruel sufferings
    жестоки изпитания severe/sore trials
    жестоки опасности ви грозят you are exposed to the direst dangers
    жестока необходимост dire necessity
    жестока критика severe/keen criticism
    подлагам на жестока критика criticize severely
    жестоката истина the brutal truth
    * * *
    жесто̀к,
    прил.
    1. cruel ( към to); ( груб) brutal; ( зъл) merciless, mean; ( неумолим) obdurate, implacable, inexorable, relentless; (за деяние) atrocious, monstrous, outrageous; \жестока съдба cruel/hard fate; \жестоки нрави cruel customs; \жестоко сърце heart of stone/flint/steel;
    2. ( силен, яростен) fierce, violent; \жесток студ severe frost; \жесток удар crushing/savage/fierce blow; \жестока критика severe/keen criticism; \жестока необходимост dire/grim necessity; \жестока несправедливост gross injustice; \жестоката истина the brutal truth; \жестоки изпитания severe/sore trials; \жестоки нрави cruel customs; \жестоки опасности ви грозят you are exposed to the direst dangers; \жестоки страдания agonizing pain, torment, terrible/cruel sufferings; \жестоко поражение punishing/crushing defeat; \жестоко разочарование bitter/cruel disappointment; има нещо \жестоко у него he has a streak of cruelty.
    * * *
    monstrous: жесток insult - жестока обида; barbarous ; brute {bryu;t}; cruel: жесток customs - жестоки нрави; dark ; felonious ; ferocious ; grim {grim}; infernal ; mean {mi;n}; merciless ; outrageous
    * * *
    1. (груб) brutal 2. (за деяние)s atrocious, monstrous, outrageous 3. (зъл) merciless, mean 4. (неумолим) obdurate 5. (силен, яростен) fierce, violent 6. cruel (към to) 7. ЖЕСТОК студ severe frost 8. ЖЕСТОК удар a crushing/savage/ fierce blow 9. ЖЕСТОКa борба a fierce struggle 10. ЖЕСТОКa измама a cruel deception 11. ЖЕСТОКa критика severe/keen criticism 12. ЖЕСТОКa необходимост dire necessity 13. ЖЕСТОКa обида/неправда an outrageous/a monstrous insult/injustice 14. ЖЕСТОКa съдба a cruel/ hard fate 15. ЖЕСТОКa съпротива fierce resistance 16. ЖЕСТОКo поражение a punishing/ crushing defeat 17. ЖЕСТОКo разочарование a bitter/cruel disappointment 18. ЖЕСТОКo сърце a heart of stone/flint/steel 19. ЖЕСТОКата истина the brutal truth 20. ЖЕСТОКи изпитания severe/sore trials 21. ЖЕСТОКи нрави cruel customs 22. ЖЕСТОКи опасности ви грозят you are exposed to the direst dangers 23. ЖЕСТОКи страдания agonizing pain, torment, terrible/cruel sufferings 24. подлагам на ЖЕСТОКa критика criticize severely

    Български-английски речник > жесток

  • 9 критика критик·а

    1) criticism; (исследование тж.) critique

    вывести из зоны критики — to place (smb.) out of bounds of criticism

    вызывать критику — to arouse / to elicit / to evoke / to provoke criticizm; to draw fire перен.

    подвергать критике — to expose / to subject to criticism; to criticize

    подвергнуть серьёзной критике в печати / прессе — to give (smb.) much critical press

    подвергаться критике — to be criticized; to be subjected to criticizm

    подвергнуться жесточайшей критике — to run the gauntlet of criticism; to be under lash

    преследовать за критику — to victimize (smb.) for criticism; to harass who came up with criticism

    принимать / учесть критику — to meet criticism

    безжалостная / беспощадная критика — slashing criticism

    деловая критика — meaningful / practical criticism

    острая критика — acute / bitter / keen / sharp criticism

    резкая критика — slashing / harsh / severe criticism

    уничтожающая критика — destructive / scorching / scathing criticism

    2) собир. (критики) the critics

    Russian-english dctionary of diplomacy > критика критик·а

  • 10 beißend

    I Part. Präs. beißen
    II Adj. Wind, Kälte: biting; Geruch: sharp, acrid; Schmerz: sharp; fig. Bemerkung etc.: biting, caustic, acrid, acerbic; Kritik: auch mordant criticism
    * * *
    (Geruch) pungent;
    (Qualm) nippy; acrid; biting;
    (Spott) biting; cutting; incisive; mordant; caustic; acrid; tart; stinging;
    (Zähne) biting
    * * *
    bei|ßend
    adj (lit, fig)
    biting; Wind auch, Bemerkung cutting; Geschmack, Geruch pungent, sharp; Schmerz gnawing; Ironie, Hohn, Spott bitter
    * * *
    1) (sarcastic: acid humour.) acid
    2) (harsh in smell or taste: The acrid smell of smoke filled the room.) acrid
    3) ((of remarks) bitter or sarcastic: caustic comments.) caustic
    4) (very cold and causing discomfort: a biting wind.) biting
    5) (wounding or hurtful: a biting remark.) biting
    6) ((of the weather) cold.) nippy
    * * *
    bei·ßend
    1. (scharf) pungent, sharp
    \beißender Qualm acrid smoke
    2. (brennend) burning
    3. (ätzend) caustic, cutting
    \beißende Kritik scathing criticism
    * * *
    Adjektiv; nicht präd. biting < cold>; acrid <smoke, fumes>; sharp < frost>; pungent, sharp <smell, taste>; (fig.) biting < ridicule>; cutting < irony>
    * * *
    A. ppr → beißen
    B. adj Wind, Kälte: biting; Geruch: sharp, acrid; Schmerz: sharp; fig Bemerkung etc: biting, caustic, acrid, acerbic; Kritik: auch mordant criticism
    * * *
    Adjektiv; nicht präd. biting < cold>; acrid <smoke, fumes>; sharp < frost>; pungent, sharp <smell, taste>; (fig.) biting < ridicule>; cutting < irony>
    * * *
    adj.
    biting adj.
    mordant adj.
    nippy adj. adv.
    mordantly adv.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > beißend

  • 11 scharf

    (beißend) caustic; acrimonious; biting; pungent; acrid; tart;
    (bissig) fierce;
    (brüsk) stiff;
    (geladen) live;
    (scharfsinnig) trenchant; incisive; keen;
    (schneidend) cutting; edged; sharp;
    (sexuell erregt) randy (ugs.); horny (ugs.)
    * * *
    schạrf [ʃarf]
    1. adj comp - er
    ['ʃɛrfɐ] superl -ste(r, s) ['ʃɛrfstə]
    1) Messer, Kante, Kurve sharp; (= durchdringend) Wind keen, biting, cutting; Kälte biting; Luft raw, keen; Frost sharp, keen; Ton piercing, shrill

    das scharfe S (Aus inf) — the "scharfes s" (German symbol ß), ess-tset

    2) (= stark gewürzt) hot; Geruch, Geschmack pungent, acrid; Käse strong, sharp; Alkohol (= stark) strong; (= brennend) fiery; (= ätzend) Waschmittel, Lösung caustic

    scharfe Sachen (inf) — hard stuff (inf)

    3) (= hart, streng) Mittel, Maßnahmen tough, severe, drastic; (inf) Prüfung, Untersuchung strict, tough; Lehrer, Polizist tough; Bewachung close, tight; Hund fierce
    4) (= schonungslos, stark) Worte, Kritik sharp, biting, harsh; Widerstand, Konkurrenz fierce, tough; Gegner, Protest strong, fierce; Auseinandersetzung bitter, fierce

    eine scharfe Zunge haben — to have a sharp tongue, to be sharp-tongued

    jdn/etw in scharfer Form kritisieren — to criticize sb/sth in strong terms

    5) (= deutlich, klar, genau) sharp; Unterschied sharp, marked; Brille, Linse sharply focusing; Augen sharp, keen; Töne clear, precise; Verstand, Intelligenz, Gehör sharp, keen, acute; Beobachter keen
    6) (= heftig, schnell) Ritt, Trab hard

    ein scharfes Tempo fahren (inf) — to drive hell for leather (Brit) or like a bat out of hell (inf), to drive at quite a lick (Brit inf)

    7) (= echt) Munition etc, Schuss live
    8) (inf = geil) randy (Brit inf horny (inf)

    scharf werden — to get turned on (inf), to get randy (Brit inf) or horny (inf)

    auf jdn/etw scharf sein — to be keen on (inf) or hot for (inf) sb/sth, to fancy sb/sth (inf)

    der Kleine/Alte ist scharf wie Nachbars Lumpi or tausend Russen or sieben Sensen (dated) — he's a randy (Brit) or horny little/old bugger (inf)

    See:
    → auch scharfmachen
    2. adv comp -er,
    superl am -sten
    1)

    (= intensiv) scharf nach etw riechen — to smell strongly of sth

    scharf würzen — to season highly, to make hot (inf)

    2)

    (= schneidend) etw scharf schleifen — to sharpen or hone sth to a fine edge

    das "s" wird oft scharf ausgesprochen — "s" is often voiceless, "s" is often pronounced as an "s" and not a "z"

    3) (= heftig) attackieren, kritisieren sharply; ablehnen adamantly; protestieren emphatically
    4) (= konzentriert) zuhören closely

    jdn scharf ansehen — to give sb a scrutinizing look; (missbilligend) to look sharply at sb

    scharf nachdenken — to have a good or long think, to think long and hard

    5) (= präzise) analysieren carefully, in detail
    6)

    (= genau) etw scharf einstellen (Bild, Diaprojektor etc) — to bring sth into focus; Sender to tune sth in (properly)

    scharf eingestellt — in (sharp) focus, (properly) tuned in

    scharf sehen/hören — to have sharp eyes/ears

    7) (= schnell) fahren, marschieren fast
    8) (= abrupt) bremsen sharply, hard
    9)

    (= hart) scharf vorgehen/durchgreifen — to take decisive action

    10) (= streng) bewachen closely
    11)

    (= knapp) scharf kalkulieren — to reduce one's profit margin

    12) (= fein) hören, sehen clearly, well
    13) (MIL)

    in der Diskussion wurde ziemlich scharf geschossen (inf) — the discussion became rather heated, sparks flew in the discussion

    * * *
    2) ((of the senses) keen: acute hearing.) acute
    3) ((of food) having a sharp, burning taste: a hot curry.) hot
    4) (insulting or offending: a cutting remark.) cut
    6) keen
    7) (sharp: Her eyesight is as keen as ever.) keen
    8) ((of wind etc) very cold and biting.) keen
    9) ((of food) containing a lot of pepper: The soup is too peppery.) peppery
    10) (full of energy, and capable of becoming active: a live bomb) live
    12) ((of a taste or smell) sharp and strong.) pungent
    13) (unpleasantly stale and strong: a rank smell of tobacco.) rank
    14) severe
    15) (having a thin edge that can cut or a point that can pierce: a sharp knife.) sharp
    16) ((of changes in direction) sudden and quick: a sharp left turn.) sharp
    17) (alert: Dogs have sharp ears.) sharp
    18) (with an abrupt change of direction: Turn sharp left here.) sharp
    19) (in a sharp manner: a sharply-pointed piece of glass; The road turned sharply to the left; He rebuked her sharply.) sharply
    * * *
    <schärfer, schärfste>
    [ʃarf]
    I. adj
    1. (gut geschliffen) Messer, Klinge sharp, keen form
    \scharfe Krallen/Zähne sharp claws/teeth
    etw \scharf machen to sharpen sth
    etw \scharf schleifen to sharpen sth
    eine \scharfe Bügelfalte a sharp crease
    \scharfe Gesichtszüge sharp features
    eine \scharfe Kante a sharp edge
    eine \scharfe Kurve/Kehre a hairpin bend
    eine \scharfe Nase a sharp nose
    3. KOCHK (hochprozentig) strong; (sehr würzig) highly seasoned; (stark gewürzt) hot
    \scharfe Gewürze/ \scharfer Senf hot spices/mustard
    \scharfer Käse strong cheese
    einen S\scharfen trinken (fam) to knock back some of the hard stuff fam
    4. (ätzend) aggressive, caustic [or strong]
    \scharfe Dämpfe caustic vapours [or AM -ors]
    ein \scharfer Geruch a pungent odour [or AM -or]
    \scharfe Putzmittel aggressive detergents; s.a. Sache
    5. (schonungslos, heftig) harsh, severe, tough
    \scharfe Ablehnung fierce [or strong] opposition
    \scharfe Aufsicht/Bewachung/Kontrolle rigorous [or strict] supervision/surveillance/control
    \scharfe Auseinandersetzungen bitter altercations
    \scharfe dirigistische Eingriffe POL drastic state interference
    etw in schärfster Form verurteilen to condemn sth in the strongest possible terms
    ein \scharfer Gegner a fierce opponent
    \scharfe Konkurrenz fierce [or keen] competition
    \scharfe Maßnahmen ergreifen to take drastic [or harsh] measures
    ein \scharfer Polizist a tough policeman
    ein \scharfer Prüfer a strict examiner
    \scharfer Protest strong [or vigorous] protest
    ein \scharfes Urteil a harsh [or scathing] judgement
    6. (bissig) fierce, vicious pej
    \scharfe Kritik biting [or fierce] criticism
    ein \scharfer Verweis a strong reprimand
    \scharfer Widerstand fierce [or strong] resistance
    eine \scharfe Zunge haben to have a sharp tongue
    sehr \scharf gegen jdn werden to be very sharp with sb
    7. inv (echt) real
    eine \scharfe Bombe a live bomb
    mit \scharfen Patronen schießen to shoot live bullets
    \scharfe Schüsse abfeuern to shoot with live ammunition
    8. (konzentriert, präzise) careful, keen
    ein \scharfer Analytiker a careful [or thorough] analyst
    eine \scharfe Auffassungsgabe haben to have keen powers of observation
    ein \scharfes Auge für etw akk haben to have a keen eye for sth
    ein \scharfer Beobachter a keen [or perceptive] observer
    \scharfe Beobachtung astute [or keen] observation
    \scharfe Betrachtung careful [or thorough] examination
    \scharfer Blick close [or thorough] inspection
    \scharfe Intelligenz keen intelligence
    ein \scharfer Verstand a keen [or sharp] mind
    9. FOTO sharp
    ein gestochen \scharfes Foto an extremely sharp photo
    eine \scharfe Linse a strong [or powerful] lens
    \scharfe Umrisse sharp outlines
    10. (schneidend) biting
    \scharfer Frost sharp frost
    \scharfe Kälte biting [or fierce] cold
    \scharfes Licht glaring [or stabbing] light
    \scharfe Luft raw air
    eine \scharfe Stimme a sharp voice
    ein \scharfer Ton a shrill sound
    ein \scharfer Wind a biting wind
    11. (forciert) hard, fast
    in \scharfem Galopp reiten to ride at a furious gallop
    ein \scharfer Ritt a hard ride
    in \scharfem Tempo at a [fast and] furious pace
    12. (sl: fantastisch) great fam, fantastic fam, terrific
    ein \scharfes Auto a cool car
    [das ist] \scharf! [that is] cool!
    das ist das Schärfste! (sl) that [really] takes the biscuit [or AM cake]! fig
    13. FBALL (kraftvoll) fierce
    ein \scharfer Schuss a fierce shot
    14. (aggressiv) fierce
    ein \scharfer [Wach]hund a fierce [watch]dog
    15. (sl: aufreizend, geil) spicy fam, naughty fam, sexy fam
    ein \scharfes Mädchen a sexy girl
    \scharf auf jdn sein (fam) to have the hots for sb fam
    auf etw akk \scharf sein to [really] fancy sth fam, to be keen on sth
    II. adv
    \scharf gebügelte Hosen sharply ironed trousers [or pants
    ich esse/koche gerne \scharf I like eating/cooking spicy/hot food
    \scharf schmecken to taste hot
    etw \scharf würzen to highly season sth
    3. (heftig) sharply
    etw \scharf ablehnen to reject sth outright [or out of hand], to flatly reject sth
    etw \scharf angreifen [o attackieren] to attack sth sharply [or viciously]
    \scharf durchgreifen to take drastic action
    etw \scharf kritisieren to criticize sth sharply [or harshly] [or severely]
    gegen etw akk \scharf protestieren to protest strongly [or vigorously] against sth
    etw \scharf verurteilen to condemn sth strongly [or harshly]
    jdm \scharf widersprechen to vehemently contradict
    4. (konzentriert, präzise) carefully
    \scharf analysieren to analyze carefully [or painstakingly] [or thoroughly]
    \scharf aufpassen to take great [or extreme] care
    ein Problem \scharf beleuchten to get right to the heart of a problem
    \scharf beobachten to observe [or watch] carefully [or closely]
    \scharf hinsehen to look good and hard
    etw \scharf unter die Lupe nehmen to investigate sth carefully [or thoroughly], to take a careful [or close] look at sth
    \scharf nachdenken to think hard
    etw \scharf umreißen to define sth clearly [or sharply
    5. (streng) hard, closely
    etw \scharf bekämpfen to fight hard [or strongly] against sth
    jdn \scharf bewachen to keep a close guard on sb
    gegen etw akk \scharf durchgreifen [o vorgehen] to take drastic [or vigorous] action [or to take drastic steps] against sth
    6. (klar) sharply
    der Baum hebt sich \scharf vom Hintergrund ab the tree contrasts sharply to the background
    das Bild/den Sender \scharf einstellen to sharply focus the picture/tune in the station
    \scharf sehen to have keen [or sharp] eyes
    7. (abrupt) abruptly, sharply
    \scharf links/rechts abbiegen/einbiegen to take a sharp left/right, to turn sharp left/right
    Fleisch \scharf anbraten to sear meat
    \scharf bremsen to brake sharply, to slam on the brakes
    \scharf geladen sein to be loaded [with live ammunition]
    \scharf schießen to shoot [with live ammunition]
    9. (in forciertem Tempo) fast, like the wind [or devil]
    \scharf reiten to ride hard
    10. FBALL (kraftvoll) fiercely
    \scharf schießen to shoot fiercely
    * * *
    1.
    ; schärfer, schärfst... Adjektiv
    2) (stark gewürzt, brennend, stechend) hot; strong <drink, vinegar, etc.>; caustic < chemical>; pungent, acrid < smell>
    3) (durchdringend) shrill; (hell) harsh; biting <wind, air, etc.>; sharp < frost>
    4) (deutlich wahrnehmend) keen; sharp
    5) (deutlich hervortretend) sharp <contours, features, nose, photograph>
    6) (schonungslos) tough, fierce <resistance, competition, etc.>; sharp <criticism, remark, words, etc.>; strong, fierce <opponent, protest, etc.>; severe, harsh <sentence, law, measure, etc.>; fierce < dog>
    7) (schnell) fast; hard <ride, gallop, etc.>
    8) (explosiv) live; (Ballspiele) powerful < shot>
    9)

    das scharfe S — (bes. österr.) the German letter ‘ß’

    10) (ugs.): (geil) sexy <girl, clothes, pictures, etc.>; randy <fellow, thoughts, etc.>
    11)

    scharf auf jemanden/etwas sein — (ugs.) really fancy somebody (coll.) /be really keen on something

    2.
    1)

    scharf würzen/abschmecken — season/flavour highly

    2) (durchdringend) shrilly; (hell) harshly; (kalt) bitingly
    3) (deutlich wahrnehmend) <listen, watch, etc.> closely, intently; <think, consider, etc.> hard
    5) (schonungslos) <attack, criticize, etc.> sharply, strongly; <contradict, oppose, etc.> strongly, fiercely; <watch, observe, etc.> closely
    6) (schnell) fast

    scharf bremsen — brake hard or sharply

    7)
    * * *
    scharf; schärfer, am schärfsten
    A. adj
    1. Messer etc: sharp (auch fig);
    scharfe Zunge sharp tongue
    2. Essen: hot, spicy, highly seasoned; Essig, Senf, Käse: strong; Geruch: acrid, pungent; Säure: caustic; Paprika, Pfeffer: hot; Alkohol: strong; (brennend) sharp; Waschmittel: aggressive;
    scharfe Saucen picante sauces;
    scharfe Sachen umg the hard stuff sg;
    das ist vielleicht ein scharfes Zeug umg it really burns your throat
    3. Sinnesorgan etc: sharp;
    scharfes Auge, scharfer Blick sharp ( oder keen) eye(s), keen eyesight;
    ein scharfes Auge haben für have a keen ( oder good) eye for;
    scharfes Gehör sharp ears, keen sense of hearing;
    scharfer Beobachter/Denker keen observer/thinker;
    scharfer Verstand keen ( oder incisive) mind
    4. Kritik, Zurechtweisung etc: harsh, severe; (heftig) hard;
    scharfer Kritiker severe critic;
    scharfer Protest fierce ( oder sharp oder vehement) protest;
    schärfsten Protest einlegen protest vehemently;
    scharfer Widerstand severe ( oder stiff) opposition;
    in scharfem Ton in a sharp tone
    5. (durchdringend) Ton: piercing, shrill;
    scharfer Wind biting ( oder cutting) wind;
    die Luft ist scharf there’s a nip ( oder bite) in the air
    6. (hart, stark) Gegensatz: stark;
    ein scharfer Gegner von … a sworn enemy of …;
    scharfer Kampf hard fight;
    scharfe Konkurrenz stiff competition;
    scharfe Maßnahmen strict ( oder stringent) measures;
    eine scharfe Satire über … a pungent satire on …;
    scharfe Bestrafung severe punishment;
    ein scharfer Hund an attack dog (trained to attack intruders etc); umg, fig hard taskmaster;
    sie ist eine scharfe Prüferin umg she’s a demanding ( oder tough) examiner
    7. (deutlich) sharp, clear;
    scharfe Umrisse clear ( oder sharp) outlines;
    scharfe Gesichtszüge sharp ( oder clear-cut) features;
    das Bild ist nicht ganz scharf the picture isn’t quite sharp ( oder is slightly blurred);
    eine schärfere Brille brauchen need stronger spectacles; → auch gestochen
    8. (jäh, abrupt) abrupt, sharp;
    scharfe Kurve sharp bend;
    scharfe Kurven umg, fig a sensational figure sg
    9. (schnell) fast;
    scharfer Ritt hard ride;
    scharfes Tempo fast ( oder sharp) pace;
    scharfer Schuss SPORT powerful shot
    10. umg (versessen)
    auf jemanden/etwas scharf sein be keen on (US eager about) sb/sth; stärker: be wild about sb/sth;
    ganz scharf darauf sein zu (+inf) umg be dead keen on (US wild about) (+ger), be dead keen to (US dying to) (+inf)
    11. umg (geil) besonders Br randy, horny sl;
    scharf wie Nachbars Lumpi as randy (US horny) as a dog on (US in) heat;
    scharfer Film/scharfes Buch/scharfe Wäsche sexy film/book/underwear
    12. umg (toll) great, cool;
    scharfe Klamotten/scharfes Auto auch snazzy clothes/car;
    das ist ja scharf that’s really (US real) cool
    13. LING:
    ein scharfes „S“ a German ß character
    14. Munition: live;
    mit scharfer Munition schießen shoot ( oder fire) live bullets
    B. adv
    1. sharply etc;
    scharf sehen/hören have sharp eyes/ears;
    scharf geschnitten Profil etc: clear-cut;
    scharf anbraten (fry to) seal;
    scharf bewachen keep a close guard (fig watch, eye) on;
    scharf aufpassen pay close attention, keep close watch;
    scharf ins Auge fassen fix sb with one’s eyes; fig take a close look at sb (oder sth);
    jemanden scharf anfassen müssen have to be very strict with sb;
    scharf durchgreifen take tough action (
    bei against);
    scharf ablehnen flatly reject;
    scharf verurteilen/kritisieren severely condemn/criticize;
    scharf formuliert sharply ( oder strongly)worded;
    scharf nachdenken think hard, have a good think;
    denkt mal scharf nach umg put your thinking caps on (for a minute);
    scharf schießen shoot with live ammunition;
    in der Diskussion wurde scharf geschossen fig there were some sharp exchanges during the discussion
    2.
    scharf würzen season with hot spices;
    zu scharf gewürzt too highly seasoned;
    gerne scharf essen like highly seasoned ( oder very spicy) food
    3. (genau) sharply, accurately;
    scharf einstellen FOTO focus (accurately);
    schärfer stellen Bild: make sharper; Radio: tune in better ( oder more accurately);
    mit dieser Brille sehe ich nicht scharf I can’t see clearly with these spectacles (US glasses);
    scharf blickend sharp-sighted; fig perspicacious;
    scharf umrissen sharply defined; fig clear-cut
    scharf bremsen brake hard, slam on the brakes;
    scharf anfahren make a racing start;
    ein unheimlich scharf geschossener Ball an incredibly powerful shot
    5.
    scharf nach rechts/links gehen turn sharp right/left;
    scharf rechts/links fahren dicht am Straßenrand: keep well in to the right/left, hug the right-hand/left-hand kerb (US curb); unkontrolliert: swerve ( oder veer) to the right/left; (abbiegen) turn sharp right/left;
    scharf auf ein Auto auffahren drive right up to a car’s rear bumper, besonders US tailgate a car; → schärfen
    * * *
    1.
    ; schärfer, schärfst... Adjektiv
    2) (stark gewürzt, brennend, stechend) hot; strong <drink, vinegar, etc.>; caustic < chemical>; pungent, acrid < smell>
    3) (durchdringend) shrill; (hell) harsh; biting <wind, air, etc.>; sharp < frost>
    4) (deutlich wahrnehmend) keen; sharp
    5) (deutlich hervortretend) sharp <contours, features, nose, photograph>
    6) (schonungslos) tough, fierce <resistance, competition, etc.>; sharp <criticism, remark, words, etc.>; strong, fierce <opponent, protest, etc.>; severe, harsh <sentence, law, measure, etc.>; fierce < dog>
    7) (schnell) fast; hard <ride, gallop, etc.>
    8) (explosiv) live; (Ballspiele) powerful < shot>
    9)

    das scharfe S — (bes. österr.) the German letter ‘ß’

    10) (ugs.): (geil) sexy <girl, clothes, pictures, etc.>; randy <fellow, thoughts, etc.>
    11)

    scharf auf jemanden/etwas sein — (ugs.) really fancy somebody (coll.) /be really keen on something

    2.
    1)

    scharf würzen/abschmecken — season/flavour highly

    2) (durchdringend) shrilly; (hell) harshly; (kalt) bitingly
    3) (deutlich wahrnehmend) <listen, watch, etc.> closely, intently; <think, consider, etc.> hard
    5) (schonungslos) <attack, criticize, etc.> sharply, strongly; <contradict, oppose, etc.> strongly, fiercely; <watch, observe, etc.> closely
    6) (schnell) fast

    scharf bremsen — brake hard or sharply

    7)
    * * *
    adj.
    acrid adj.
    acute adj.
    caustic adj.
    edged adj.
    hot adj.
    keen adj.
    poignant adj.
    pungent adj.
    sharp adj.
    strident adj.
    subtle adj.
    tangy adj.
    trenchant adj.
    twangy adj. adv.
    acridly adv.
    keenly adv.
    poignantly adv.
    pungently adv.
    sharply adv.
    stridently adv.
    trenchantly adv.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > scharf

  • 12 acerbo

    adj.
    1 acerbic, acerb, biting, bitter.
    2 acerbic, acerb, harsh, biting.
    * * *
    1 (al gusto) bitter, sour
    2 (cruel) cruel, bitter
    * * *
    ADJ [sabor] bitter, sour; (=cruel) harsh, scathing
    * * *
    - ba adjetivo <tono/crítica> harsh, caustic; < sabor> sharp
    * * *
    - ba adjetivo <tono/crítica> harsh, caustic; < sabor> sharp
    * * *
    acerbo -ba
    1 ‹tono/crítica› harsh, caustic, acerbic
    2 ‹sabor› sharp
    * * *

    acerbo,-a adjetivo
    1 (despiadado, descarnado) scathing: su última novela recibió acerbas críticas, her last novel received scathing criticism
    2 (sabor) sour
    ' acerbo' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acerba
    * * *
    acerbo, -a adj
    Formal
    1. [áspero] bitter
    2. [mordaz] caustic, cutting
    * * *
    adj
    1 sabor sour, sharp
    2 comentario sharp, acerbic
    * * *
    acerbo, -ba adj
    1) : harsh, cutting
    comentarios acerbos: cutting remarks
    2) : bitter
    ♦ acerbamente adv

    Spanish-English dictionary > acerbo

  • 13 empfindlich

    I Adj.
    1. (fein reagierend, anzeigend) Messgerät etc.: sensitive ( gegen to), delicate; Film: fast
    2. (verletzbar, leicht beschädigt, schmerzempfindlich) Haut, Zahn etc.: sensitive ( gegen to); Haut: auch delicate; Gesundheit, Stoff, Teppich etc.: delicate; Pflanze: tender, delicate; Person: (leicht gekränkt) touchy ( gegen about), (very) sensitive (about); pej. over-sensitive (about), easily offended, präd. auch quick to take offen|ce (Am. -se); (anfällig) susceptible ( gegen to); empfindliche Stelle sore spot (auch fig.), tender spot ( oder area)
    3. (stark, schwer, streng, auffallend) Kälte: severe, biting, bitter; Schmerz: sharp, severe; Mangel, Verlust(e) etc.: serious, disturbing, major; Verluste: auch heavy; Strafe etc.: severe, heavy, sharp
    II Adv.
    1. (fein) sensitively; empfindlich reagieren ( auf + Akk) react sensitively (to); auf Einflüsse: respond readily ( oder easily) (to)
    2. (verletzbar, reizbar) sensitively; pej. over-sensitively, badly; (beleidigt) touchily; pej. huffily
    3. (stark, scharf) severely, badly; empfindlich kalt bitter(ly) ( oder bitingly) cold; jemanden empfindlich treffen Bemerkung etc.: hit s.o. hard, cut s.o. to the quick, hit ( oder strike) home; sich empfindlich bemerkbar machen make one’s presence felt with a vengeance ( oder in no uncertain manner)
    * * *
    delicate; sensitive; touchy; tender; pettish; squeamish; susceptible; spiky
    * * *
    emp|fịnd|lich [ɛm'pfIntlɪç]
    1. adj
    1) sensitive (AUCH PHOT, TECH); Gesundheit, Stoff, Glas, Keramik etc delicate; (= leicht reizbar) touchy (inf), (over)sensitive

    empfindliche Stelle (lit) — sensitive spot; (fig auch) sore point

    gegen etw empfindlich sein — to be sensitive to sth

    2) (= spürbar, schmerzlich) Verlust, Kälte, Strafe, Niederlage severe; Mangel appreciable
    2. adv
    1) (= sensibel) sensitively

    empfindlich reagieren — to be sensitive (

    auf +acc to)

    wenn man ihren geschiedenen Mann erwähnt, reagiert sie sehr empfindlich — she is very sensitive to references to her ex-husband

    2) (= spürbar) severely

    deine Kritik hat ihn empfindlich getroffen — your criticism cut him to the quick (esp Brit) or bone (US)

    es ist empfindlich kalt — it is bitterly cold

    * * *
    2) (requiring special treatment or careful handling: delicate china; a delicate situation/problem.) delicate
    3) ((usually with to) strongly or easily affected (by something): sensitive skin; sensitive to light.) sensitive
    4) (suffering pain: I am still a bit sore after my operation.) sore
    5) (easily annoyed or offended: You're very touchy today; in rather a touchy mood.) touchy
    7) (sore; painful when touched: His injured leg is still tender.) tender
    8) (sensitive; easily hurt or upset: Be careful what you say - she's very thin-skinned.) thin-skinned
    * * *
    emp·find·lich
    [ɛmˈpfɪntlɪç]
    I. adj
    1. (auf Reize leicht reagierend) sensitive ( gegen + akk to)
    \empfindliche Haut delicate [or sensitive] skin
    2. FOTO (lichtempfindlich) sensitive
    \empfindlicher Film higher speed film, film with high light sensitivity
    3. (leicht verletzbar) sensitive; (reizbar) touchy, oversensitive
    jdn an seiner \empfindlichen Stelle treffen to touch sb's sore spot
    in dieser Gelegenheit ist sie sehr \empfindlich she's very touchy in this matter
    4. (anfällig) Gesundheit delicate
    \empfindlich gegen Kälte sensitive to cold
    II. adv
    auf akk etw \empfindlich reagieren to be very sensitive to sth
    2. (spürbar) severely
    es ist \empfindlich kalt it's bitterly cold
    * * *
    1.
    1) (sensibel, feinfühlig, auch fig.) sensitive; fast < film>
    2) (leicht beleidigt) sensitive, touchy < person>
    3) (anfällig) delicate
    4) (spürbar) severe <punishment, shortage>; harsh <punishment, measure>; sharp < increase>
    2.
    1)

    empfindlich auf etwas (Akk.) reagieren — (sensibel) be susceptible to something; (beleidigt) react oversensitively to something

    2) (spürbar) < punish> severely, harshly; < increase> sharply
    3) (intensivierend) < hurt> badly; bitterly < cold>
    * * *
    A. adj
    1. (fein reagierend, anzeigend) Messgerät etc: sensitive (
    gegen to), delicate; FILM fast
    2. (verletzbar, leicht beschädigt, schmerzempfindlich) Haut, Zahn etc: sensitive (
    gegen to); Haut: auch delicate; Gesundheit, Stoff, Teppich etc: delicate; Pflanze: tender, delicate; Person: (leicht gekränkt) touchy (
    gegen about), (very) sensitive (about); pej over-sensitive (about), easily offended, präd auch quick to take offence (US -se); (anfällig) susceptible (
    gegen to);
    empfindliche Stelle sore spot (auch fig), tender spot ( oder area)
    3. (stark, schwer, streng, auffallend) Kälte: severe, biting, bitter; Schmerz: sharp, severe; Mangel, Verlust(e) etc: serious, disturbing, major; Verluste: auch heavy; Strafe etc: severe, heavy, sharp
    B. adv
    1. (fein) sensitively;
    auf +akk) react sensitively (to); auf Einflüsse: respond readily ( oder easily) (to)
    2. (verletzbar, reizbar) sensitively; pej over-sensitively, badly; (beleidigt) touchily; pej huffily
    3. (stark, scharf) severely, badly;
    empfindlich kalt bitter(ly) ( oder bitingly) cold;
    jemanden empfindlich treffen Bemerkung etc: hit sb hard, cut sb to the quick, hit ( oder strike) home;
    sich empfindlich bemerkbar machen make one’s presence felt with a vengeance ( oder in no uncertain manner)
    …empfindlich im adj …-sensitive;
    frostempfindlich susceptible to frost, not frost-resistant ( oder hardy);
    korrosionsempfindlich attr easily corroding, präd prone to corrosion, of low corrosion resistance;
    preisempfindlich price- ( oder cost-)sensitive;
    säureempfindlich Substanz etc: … that reacts with acid;
    zinsempfindlich rate- ( oder interest-)sensitive
    * * *
    1.
    1) (sensibel, feinfühlig, auch fig.) sensitive; fast < film>
    2) (leicht beleidigt) sensitive, touchy < person>
    3) (anfällig) delicate
    4) (spürbar) severe <punishment, shortage>; harsh <punishment, measure>; sharp < increase>
    2.
    1)

    empfindlich auf etwas (Akk.) reagieren — (sensibel) be susceptible to something; (beleidigt) react oversensitively to something

    2) (spürbar) < punish> severely, harshly; < increase> sharply
    3) (intensivierend) < hurt> badly; bitterly < cold>
    * * *
    adj.
    damageable adj.
    pettish adj.
    queasy adj.
    sensitive adj.
    tender adj.
    touchy adj. adv.
    delicately adv.
    pettishly adv.
    queasily adv.
    sensitively adv.
    touchily adv.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > empfindlich

  • 14 vif

    vif, vive1 [vif, viv]
    1. adjective
       a. ( = plein de vie) lively ; ( = alerte) sharp ; [intelligence] keen
    • il a l'œil or le regard vif he has a sharp eye
       b. ( = brusque) [ton, propos] sharp
       c. ( = profond) [émotion, plaisirs, désir] intense ; [souvenirs, impression] vivid ; [déception] acute
       d. ( = fort, grand) (avant le nom) [chagrin, regrets] deep ; [critiques, réprobation] severe
    • un vif penchant pour... a strong liking for...
       e. ( = cru, aigu) [lumière, éclat, couleur] bright ; [douleur, arête] sharp ; [vent, froid] bitter
       f. ( = vivant) être brûlé/enterré vif to be burnt/buried alive
       g. ► de vive voix [renseigner, communiquer, remercier] personally
    2. masculine noun
    ► à vif [chair] bared ; [plaie] open
    • être touché or piqué au vif to be hit on a vulnerable spot► dans le vif
    • tailler or couper or trancher dans le vif ( = prendre une décision) to take drastic action
    • scènes/photos prises sur le vif scenes shot/photos taken from real life
    * * *

    1.
    vive vif, viv adjectif
    1) ( brillant) [couleur, lumière] bright
    2) ( animé) [personne] lively, vivacious; [imagination] vivid
    3) ( agressif) [débat, protestations] heated; [opposition] fierce

    sa réaction a été un peu vive — he/she reacted rather strongly

    4) ( important) [contraste] sharp; [intérêt, désir] keen; [inquiétude] deep; [crainte, douleur] acute; [préoccupation] serious; [déception] bitter; [succès] notable
    5) ( rapide) [rythme, geste] brisk

    à vive allure — [conduire, rouler] at a fast speed; [travailler, marcher] at a brisk pace

    6) (perçant, tranchant) [froid, vent] keen; [arête] sharp
    7) ( vivant) alive

    2.
    nom masculin
    1) gén

    à vif — [chair] bared; [genou] raw; [fil électrique] exposed

    piquer or blesser quelqu'un au vif — to sting ou cut somebody to the quick

    (pris) sur le vif — [croquis] thumbnail (épith); [photo] candid; [notes] taken on the spot (jamais épith); [entretien] live

    entre vifs — [donation, partage] inter vivos

    * * *
    vif, viv (vive)
    1. adj
    1) (= animé) (discussion, musique, personne) lively
    2) (= rapide)
    3) (= alerte) sharp, quick

    Il est très vif. — He's very sharp.

    4) (lumière, couleur) bright
    5) (= brusque) (geste, mots, attitude) sharp, brusque

    Il s'est montré un peu vif avec elle. — He was a bit sharp with her.

    6) (sensation, douleur) sharp, (froid) bitter, (vent) keen, (air) crisp

    L'air est plus vif à la campagne qu'en ville. — The air is crisper in the country than in the town.

    7) (avant le n) (regret, déception) great, deep, (satisfaction, soulagement) great

    C'est avec un vif plaisir que nous avons appris que... — It is with great pleasure that we learnt that...

    C'est avec une vive émotion que nous accueillons aujourd'hui... — We are truly thrilled to have with us today...

    C'est avec une vive émotion que je viens d'apprendre le lâche attentat perpétré ce matin. — I was truly shocked to hear of the cowardly attack perpetrated this morning.

    8) (= vivant) alive
    9)

    de vive voix — personally, in person

    Il est venu et a annoncé sa décision de vive voix. — He came and announced his decision in person.

    2. nm
    * * *
    A adj
    1 ( brillant) [couleur, lumière] bright; jaune vif bright yellow;
    2 ( animé) [personne] lively, vivacious; [imagination] vivid; avoir l'œil or le regard vif to have an intelligent look in one's eyes; ⇒ eau;
    3 (agressif, coléreux) [débat, protestations] heated; [opposition] fierce; répondre d'un ton vif to answer sharply; de vives critiques sharp criticism; elle est un peu vive avec lui ( comportement) she's a bit quick-tempered with him; ( ton) she's a bit sharp with him; sa réaction a été un peu vive he/she reacted rather strongly;
    4 (net, important) [contraste] sharp; [intérêt, désir] keen; [inquiétude] deep; [embarras, mécontentement, crainte, douleur] acute; [préoccupation] serious; [déception] bitter; [succès] notable; c'est avec un vif plaisir que it is with great pleasure that; ressentir une vive émotion to be deeply moved; j'avais le vif sentiment que I felt strongly that;
    5 ( rapide) [rythme, geste] brisk; marcher d'un pas vif to walk at a brisk pace; à vive allure [conduire, rouler] at a fast speed; [travailler, marcher] at a brisk pace; avoir l'esprit vif to be very quick; être vif à réagir/protester to be quick to react/protest;
    6 (perçant, tranchant) [froid, vent] keen; [arête] sharp; air vif fresh air; l'air est vif the air is bracing; cuire à feu vif to cook over a high heat;
    7 ( vivant) alive; être enterré/grillé vif to be buried/roasted alive; de vive voix in person.
    B nm
    1 gén à vif [chair] bared; [genou] raw; [fil électrique] exposed; avoir les nerfs à vif to be on edge; la plaie est à vif it's an open wound; mettre à vif to expose [os]; to rub [sth] raw [main]; cela me met les nerfs à vif it puts me on edge; piquer or blesser qn au vif to sting ou cut sb to the quick; être piqué or blessé au vif to be stung ou cut to the quick; piquer au vif la curiosité de qn to arouse sb's curiosity; (pris) sur le vif [croquis] thumbnail ( épith); [photo] candid; [notes] on the spot ( jamais épith); [entretien] live; trancher or tailler dans le vif lit to cut into the (living) flesh; ( réduire) to make drastic cuts; ( décider) to make a clear-cut decision; nous sommes entrés tout de suite dans le vif du sujet or débat we went straight to the point;
    2 Jur entre vifs [donation, mutation, partage] inter vivos.
    C vive nf Zool weever.
    ( féminin vive) [vif, viv] adjectif
    1. [plein d'énergie - personne] lively, vivacious ; [ - musique, imagination, style] lively
    2. [intelligent - élève] sharp ; [ - esprit] sharp, quick
    être vif (d'esprit) to be quick ou quick-witted ou sharp
    3. [emporté - remarque, discussion, reproche] cutting, biting ; [ - geste] brusque, brisk
    4. [très intense - froid] biting ; [ - couleur] bright, vivid ; [ - désir, sentiment] strong ; [ - déception, intérêt] keen ; [ - félicitations, remerciements] warm ; [ - regret, satisfaction] deep, great ; [ - douleur] sharp
    porter un vif intérêt à to be greatly ou keenly interested in
    c'est avec un vif plaisir que... it's with great pleasure that...
    5. [nu - angle, arête] sharp ; [ - joint] dry ; [ - pierre] bare
    6. [vivant]
    être brûlé/enterré vif to be burnt/buried alive
    8. œNOLOGIE [vin] lively
    ————————
    nom masculin
    1. [chair vivante]
    le vif the living flesh, the quick
    2. [centre]
    trancher ou tailler dans le vif to go straight to the point
    à vif locution adjectivale
    [blessure] open
    de vive voix locution adverbiale
    sur le vif locution adverbiale
    [peindre] from life
    [commenter] on the spot

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > vif

  • 15 Schärfe

    f; -, kein Pl.
    1. sharpness etc.; scharf; der Sinne, des Verstands: keenness, acuity; eines Arguments: stridency; in aller Schärfe in all strictness; einer Kritik etc. Schärfe verleihen / die Schärfe nehmen make a criticism etc. harsh / rid a criticism etc. of its harsh tone
    2. von Essen: spiciness, strong seasoning; von Senf, Käse: strength; von Gewürz etc.: hotness; einer Speise etc. Schärfe geben / nehmen make food very spicy ( oder hot) / take away a food’s spiciness
    3. OPT. definition, sharpness; einem Bild mehr Schärfe geben make a picture sharper, sharpen a picture
    * * *
    die Schärfe
    (Bissigkeit) pungency;
    (Fotografie) focus;
    (Klinge) sharpness;
    (Verstand) acuity; keenness; trenchancy;
    (Ätzkraft) acrimony
    * * *
    Schạ̈r|fe ['ʃɛrfə]
    f -, -n
    1) (von Messer, Kante, Kurve) sharpness; (von Wind, Frost) keenness; (von Ton) shrillness
    2) (von Essen) spiciness; (von Geruch, Geschmack) pungency; (von Lösung) causticity
    3) (= Härte, Strenge) toughness, severity
    4) (von Worten, Kritik) sharpness, harshness; (von Widerstand, Konkurrenz) toughness; (von Protest) strength; (von Auseinandersetzung) bitterness

    ich möchte in aller Schärfe sagen, dass... — I'm going to be quite harsh (about this) and say that...

    etw/jdn in or mit aller Schärfe kritisieren — to be sharply critical of sth/sb

    5) (= Deutlichkeit) sharpness; (von Brille, Linse) strength; (von Augen) sharpness, keenness; (von Gehör, Verstand) keenness; (an Kamera, Fernsehen) focus; (an Radio) tuning
    * * *
    die
    2) (keenness; sharpness: The chocolate took the edge off his hunger.) edge
    * * *
    Schär·fe
    <-, -n>
    [ˈʃɛrfə]
    f
    1. (guter Schliff) sharpness, [sharp] edge
    die \Schärfe einer Axt the sharpness of an axe
    2. KOCHK spiciness; eines Käses sharpness, strength; von Senf/Chilis/Pfeffer hotness; einer Zitrone tanginess
    3. (Heftigkeit) einer Ablehnung severity; der Konkurrenz keenness, strength; der Kritik severity, sharpness; von Worten harshness
    in aller \Schärfe kritisieren to criticize severely [or sharply]
    in aller \Schärfe zurückweisen to refuse/reject outright, to flatly refuse, to reject out of hand
    4. (Präzision) sharpness, keenness; der Augen/des Gehörs/des Verstandes keenness
    5. FOTO sharpness; einer Brille/eines Brillenglases strength
    6. (ätzende Wirkung) causticity
    7. (schneidend sein) des Windes bitterness; des Frosts sharpness
    ein Schuss von unheimlicher \Schärfe an incredibly hard shot
    * * *
    die; Schärfe, Schärfen
    1) o. Pl. sharpness
    2) o. Pl. (von Geschmack) hotness; (von Chemikalien) causticity; (von Geruch) pungency
    3) o. Pl. (Intensität) shrillness; (von Licht, Farbe usw.) harshness; (des Windes) bitterness; (des Frostes) sharpness
    4) o. Pl. s. scharf 1. 4): sharpness; keenness
    5) o. Pl. (Klarheit) clarity; sharpness
    6) o. Pl. s. scharf 1. 6): toughness; ferocity; sharpness; strength
    7) (Heftigkeit) harshness
    * * *
    Schärfe f; -, kein pl
    1. sharpness etc; → scharf; der Sinne, des Verstands: keenness, acuity; eines Arguments: stridency;
    in aller Schärfe in all strictness;
    Schärfe verleihen/die Schärfe nehmen make a criticism etc harsh/rid a criticism etc of its harsh tone
    2. von Essen: spiciness, strong seasoning; von Senf, Käse: strength; von Gewürz etc: hotness;
    Schärfe geben/nehmen make food very spicy ( oder hot)/take away a food’s spiciness
    3. OPT definition, sharpness;
    einem Bild mehr Schärfe geben make a picture sharper, sharpen a picture
    * * *
    die; Schärfe, Schärfen
    1) o. Pl. sharpness
    2) o. Pl. (von Geschmack) hotness; (von Chemikalien) causticity; (von Geruch) pungency
    3) o. Pl. (Intensität) shrillness; (von Licht, Farbe usw.) harshness; (des Windes) bitterness; (des Frostes) sharpness
    4) o. Pl. s. scharf 1. 4): sharpness; keenness
    5) o. Pl. (Klarheit) clarity; sharpness
    6) o. Pl. s. scharf 1. 6): toughness; ferocity; sharpness; strength
    7) (Heftigkeit) harshness
    * * *
    -n f.
    acridity n.
    asperity n.
    edge n.
    incisiveness n.
    keenness n.
    pepperiness n.
    poignancy n.
    pungency n.
    severeness n.
    sharpness n.
    stridence n.
    stridency n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Schärfe

  • 16 mordaz

    adj.
    1 caustic, biting.
    2 sarcastic, bitter, biting, bitterly severe.
    3 mordant, biting, sour, stinging.
    * * *
    1 mordant, sarcastic
    * * *
    adj.
    sarcastic, biting
    * * *
    ADJ [crítica, persona] sharp, scathing; [estilo] incisive; [humor] caustic
    * * *
    adjetivo <estilo/lenguaje> scathing, caustic; < crítica> sharp, scathing
    * * *
    = trenchant, scathing, searing, stinging, caustic, salty [saltier -comp., saltiest -sup.], pungent, sarcastic, blistering, spiky [spikier -comp., spikiest -sup.], vitriolic, waspish.
    Ex. However, both BTI and LCSH occasionally use headings of this kind, though one could argue strongly that these are out of place in direct entry methods, and they come in for trenchant criticism from Metcalfe.
    Ex. Fish is particularly scathing about reactionaries in the academic world who resort to a version of scaremongering about 'political correctness,' deconstruction, and other bogies.
    Ex. His searing and rigorously logical analysis of the '1949 ALA Rules for Entry' is one of my favorite pieces of writing on cataloging.
    Ex. In a stinging rebuke to the American Library Association, Nat Hentoff has criticized the ALA for failing to take action to defend volunteer librarians in Cuba who are being subjected to a brutal crackdown.
    Ex. While her characters are frequently intrinsic to theme and plot, her most caustic scenes deflate academic ambition and pretension.
    Ex. Serious questions which face us may often be better understood when a modicum of salty satire is applied.
    Ex. The studies reported here addressed the question of whether the pungent element in chilies, capsaicin, suppresses taste and flavor intensity.
    Ex. 'Listen!' he growled, in a tone so dry, sarcastic and acrid that not another word was needed to indicate that he was not about to be upstaged by a 24 year old.
    Ex. Lodge Kerrigan's 'Clean, Shaven' is a blistering piece of cinematic inventiveness and a young director's low-budget first feature.
    Ex. This adaptation of David Leavitt's novel wobbles between comedy and melodrama, ultimately fudging the novel's spiky empathy.
    Ex. This magazine had a particular interest in curious stories of libraries and bookmen, and was abundant in criticism both humorous and vitriolic.
    Ex. Harwood is excellent -- saucy and coquettish and really waspish in her subsequent vitriolic exchanges with the irate Marcello.
    ----
    * crítica mordaz = hatchet job.
    * de forma mordaz = pungently.
    * mordaz en sus comentarios = sharp of tongue.
    * * *
    adjetivo <estilo/lenguaje> scathing, caustic; < crítica> sharp, scathing
    * * *
    = trenchant, scathing, searing, stinging, caustic, salty [saltier -comp., saltiest -sup.], pungent, sarcastic, blistering, spiky [spikier -comp., spikiest -sup.], vitriolic, waspish.

    Ex: However, both BTI and LCSH occasionally use headings of this kind, though one could argue strongly that these are out of place in direct entry methods, and they come in for trenchant criticism from Metcalfe.

    Ex: Fish is particularly scathing about reactionaries in the academic world who resort to a version of scaremongering about 'political correctness,' deconstruction, and other bogies.
    Ex: His searing and rigorously logical analysis of the '1949 ALA Rules for Entry' is one of my favorite pieces of writing on cataloging.
    Ex: In a stinging rebuke to the American Library Association, Nat Hentoff has criticized the ALA for failing to take action to defend volunteer librarians in Cuba who are being subjected to a brutal crackdown.
    Ex: While her characters are frequently intrinsic to theme and plot, her most caustic scenes deflate academic ambition and pretension.
    Ex: Serious questions which face us may often be better understood when a modicum of salty satire is applied.
    Ex: The studies reported here addressed the question of whether the pungent element in chilies, capsaicin, suppresses taste and flavor intensity.
    Ex: 'Listen!' he growled, in a tone so dry, sarcastic and acrid that not another word was needed to indicate that he was not about to be upstaged by a 24 year old.
    Ex: Lodge Kerrigan's 'Clean, Shaven' is a blistering piece of cinematic inventiveness and a young director's low-budget first feature.
    Ex: This adaptation of David Leavitt's novel wobbles between comedy and melodrama, ultimately fudging the novel's spiky empathy.
    Ex: This magazine had a particular interest in curious stories of libraries and bookmen, and was abundant in criticism both humorous and vitriolic.
    Ex: Harwood is excellent -- saucy and coquettish and really waspish in her subsequent vitriolic exchanges with the irate Marcello.
    * crítica mordaz = hatchet job.
    * de forma mordaz = pungently.
    * mordaz en sus comentarios = sharp of tongue.

    * * *
    ‹estilo/lenguaje› scathing, caustic, incisive; ‹crítica› sharp, scathing
    * * *

    mordaz adjetivo ‹estilo/lenguaje› scathing, caustic;
    ‹ crítica› sharp, scathing
    mordaz adjetivo biting, scathing: me gusta leer sus mordaces comentarios acerca de los programas de la tele, I like reading his biting commentary on TV programmes
    ' mordaz' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    corrosiva
    - corrosivo
    - afilado
    English:
    abrasive
    - acid
    - barbed
    - biting
    - caustic
    - cutting
    - damning
    - denunciation
    - incisive
    - pointed
    - scathing
    - sharp
    - dry
    - dryness
    * * *
    mordaz adj
    caustic
    * * *
    adj biting, sharp
    * * *
    mordaz adj
    : caustic, scathing

    Spanish-English dictionary > mordaz

  • 17 vernichtend

    I Part. Präs. vernichten
    II Adj. devastating; (zerstörerisch) destructive; fig., Schlag, Niederlage: crushing; Antwort, Blick: withering; Kritik: scathing, devastating, damning; vernichtendes Urteil severe condemnation
    III Adv.: vernichtend schlagen destroy; SPORT, Fußball etc.: play into the ground; Boxen: annihilate
    * * *
    perishing; knockout; k.o.; destructive; scathing; devastating; damning
    * * *
    ver|nịch|tend
    1. adj
    Kritik, Urteil devastating; Blick auch withering; Niederlage crushing
    2. adv
    * * *
    2) (cruel, bitter, or hurtful: scathing comments; He was very scathing about her book.) scathing
    * * *
    ver·nich·tend
    I. adj devastating
    eine \vernichtende Niederlage a crushing [or resounding] [or total] defeat
    jdm einen \vernichtenden Blick zuwerfen to look at sb with hatred [in one's eyes]
    II. adv
    jdn \vernichtend schlagen to inflict a crushing [or resounding] [or total] defeat on sb
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv crushing < defeat>; shattering < blow>; (fig.) devastating < criticism>
    2.
    * * *
    A. ppr → vernichten
    B. adj devastating; (zerstörerisch) destructive; fig, Schlag, Niederlage: crushing; Antwort, Blick: withering; Kritik: scathing, devastating, damning;
    vernichtendes Urteil severe condemnation
    C. adv:
    vernichtend schlagen destroy; SPORT, Fußball etc: play into the ground; Boxen: annihilate
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv crushing < defeat>; shattering < blow>; (fig.) devastating < criticism>
    2.
    * * *
    adj.
    annihilating adj.
    destroying adj.
    internecine adj.
    scathing adj. adv.
    destructively adv.
    scathingly adv.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > vernichtend

  • 18 réflexion

    c black réflexion [ʀeflεksjɔ̃]
    feminine noun
       a. ( = méditation) thought
    • réflexion faite or à la réflexion, je reste on reflection, I'll stay
    • à la réflexion, on s'aperçoit que c'est faux when you think about it you can see that it's wrong
    • groupe or cellule or cercle de réflexion think tank
    • laissez-moi un délai or un temps de réflexion give me some time to think about it
    • après un temps de réflexion, il ajouta... after a moment's thought, he added...
    c black   b. ( = remarque) remark ; ( = idée) thought
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    ✎ Le mot anglais reflection se termine par - ction.
    * * *
    ʀeflɛksjɔ̃
    1) ( pensée) thought, reflection
    2) ( méditation) thinking, reflection

    réflexion faite or à la réflexion, je n'irai pas — on reflection ou on second thoughts, I won't go

    3) ( remarque) remark ( sur about), comment ( sur on)
    4) ( étude) study ( sur of)
    5) Physique reflection
    * * *
    ʀeflɛksjɔ̃
    1. nf
    1) (= pensée) reflection

    réflexion faite; à la réflexion — on reflection

    2) (= fait de penser) thought

    Elle est en pleine réflexion. — She's deep in thought.

    3) (= remarque) remark
    4) [lumière] reflection
    2. réflexions nfpl
    (= méditations) thoughts
    * * *
    1 ( pensée) thought (sur on), reflection (sur on); faire part de ses réflexions à qn to share one's thoughts with sb; inspirer des réflexions amères to give rise to bitter feelings;
    2 ( méditation) thinking (sur on), reflection (sur on); faire naître une réflexion nouvelle sur l'histoire to give rise to some fresh thinking on history; leur offre mérite réflexion their offer is worth thinking about; cela demande réflexion it needs ou requires thinking about; prendre le temps de la réflexion to take time to think; sans réflexion without thinking; réflexion faite or à la réflexion, je n'irai pas on reflection ou on second thoughts, I won't go; à la réflexion, on s'aperçoit que c'est absurde when you really think about it, you realize that it is absurd; après mûre réflexion after careful consideration, after much thought; donner matière à réflexion to be food for thought;
    3 ( remarque) remark (sur about), comment (sur on); faire des réflexions gén to make remarks; fais-nous grâce de tes réflexions spare us your comments; elle t'a fait une réflexion? did she say anything to you?; on m'a fait des réflexions sur votre attitude I've had complaints about your attitude; s'attirer des réflexions to attract criticism ou adverse comment; il a eu une réflexion bizarre/étonnante he said something odd/surprising; elle a des réflexions parfois! she says some funny things sometimes!;
    4 ( étude) study (sur of); document de réflexion discussion paper;
    5 Phys reflection.
    [reflɛksjɔ̃] nom féminin
    1. [méditation] thought
    après mûre réflexion after careful consideration, after much thought
    réflexion faite, à la réflexion on reflection
    2. [discernement]
    agir sans réflexion to act without thinking, to act thoughtlessly
    3. [remarque] remark, comment, reflection (soutenu)
    4. TECHNOLOGIE [de la lumière] reflection

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > réflexion

  • 19 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 20 Vermuyden, Sir Cornelius

    SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering
    [br]
    b. c. 1590 St Maartensdijk, Zeeland, the Netherlands
    d. 4 February 1656 probably London, England
    [br]
    Dutch/British civil engineer responsible for many of the drainage and flood-protection schemes in low-lying areas of England in the seventeenth century.
    [br]
    At the beginning of the seventeenth century, several wealthy men in England joined forces as "adventurers" to put their money into land ventures. One such group was responsible for the draining of the Fens. The first need was to find engineers who were versed in the processes of land drainage, particularly when that land was at, or below, sea level. It was natural, therefore, to turn to the Netherlands to find these skilled men. Joachim Liens was one of the first of the Dutch engineers to go to England, and he started work on the Great Level; however, no real progress was made until 1621, when Cornelius Vermuyden was brought to England to assist in the work.
    Vermuyden had grown up in a district where he could see for himself the techniques of embanking and reclaiming land from the sea. He acquired a reputation of expertise in this field, and by 1621 his fame had spread to England. In that year the Thames had flooded and breached its banks near Havering and Dagenham in Essex. Vermuyden was commissioned to repair the breach and drain neighbouring marshland, with what he claimed as complete success. The Commissioners of Sewers for Essex disputed this claim and whthheld his fee, but King Charles I granted him a portion of the reclaimed land as compensation.
    In 1626 Vermuyden carried out his first scheme for drainage works as a consultant. This was the drainage of Hatfield Chase in South Yorkshire. Charles I was, in fact, Vermuyden's employer in the drainage of the Chase, and the work was undertaken as a means of raising additional rents for the Royal Exchequer. Vermuyden was himself an "adventurer" in the undertaking, putting capital into the venture and receiving the title to a considerable proportion of the drained lands. One of the important elements of his drainage designs was the principal of "washes", which were flat areas between the protective dykes and the rivers to carry flood waters, to prevent them spreading on to nearby land. Vermuyden faced bitter opposition from those whose livelihoods depended on the marshlands and who resorted to sabotage of the embankments and violence against his imported Dutch workmen to defend their rights. The work could not be completed until arbiters had ruled out on the respective rights of the parties involved. Disagreements and criticism of his engineering practices continued and he gave up his interest in Hatfield Chase. The Hatfield Chase undertaking was not a great success, although the land is now rich farmland around the river Don in Doncaster. However, the involved financial and land-ownership arrangements were the key to the granting of a knighthood to Cornelius Vermuyden in January 1628, and in 1630 he purchased 4,000 acres of low-lying land on Sedgemoor in Somerset.
    In 1629 Vermuyden embarked on his most important work, that of draining the Great Level in the fenlands of East Anglia. Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford, was given charge of the work, with Vermuyden as Engineer; in this venture they were speculators and partners and were recompensed by a grant of land. The area which contains the Cambridgeshire tributaries of the Great Ouse were subject to severe and usually annual flooding. The works to contain the rivers in their flood period were important. Whilst the rivers were contained with the enclosed flood plain, the land beyond became highly sought-after because of the quality of the soil. The fourteen "adventurers" who eventually came into partnership with the Earl of Bedford and Vermuyden were the financiers of the scheme and also received land in accordance with their input into the scheme. In 1637 the work was claimed to be complete, but this was disputed, with Vermuyden defending himself against criticism in a pamphlet entitled Discourse Touching the Great Fennes (1638; 1642, London). In fact, much remained to be done, and after an interruption due to the Civil War the scheme was finished in 1652. Whilst the process of the Great Level works had closely involved the King, Oliver Cromwell was equally concerned over the success of the scheme. By 1655 Cornelius Vermuyden had ceased to have anything to do with the Great Level. At that stage he was asked to account for large sums granted to him to expedite the work but was unable to do so; most of his assets were seized to cover the deficiency, and from then on he subsided into obscurity and poverty.
    While Cornelius Vermuyden, as a Dutchman, was well versed in the drainage needs of his own country, he developed his skills as a hydraulic engineer in England and drained acres of derelict flooded land.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1628.
    Further Reading
    L.E.Harris, 1953, Vermuyden and the Fens, London: Cleaver Hume Press. J.Korthals-Altes, 1977, Sir Cornelius Vermuyden: The Lifework of a Great Anglo-
    Dutchman in Land-Reclamation and Drainage, New York: Alto Press.
    KM / LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Vermuyden, Sir Cornelius

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